Exploring the Digital Skills Gap Among Bachelor Students: Challenges and Opportunities for Improvement
DOI:
10.29303/jppipa.v11i8.12207Published:
2025-08-31Downloads
Abstract
Digital skills have become an essnstial element for future educators to effectively utilize technology in learning. This article explore the digital skills gap among pre-service teacher. Through a combination of literature reviews and surveys with students, this research identified level of digital skill: basic, intermediate and advance among pre-service teacher to explore challenges and opportunities for improvement across department. Research result obtained variation and that overall digital skills mastery still needs significant improvement. This research identified challenges in enhancing digital skill the pre service-teacher included eliminating the perception that technology is not a priority for pre service teachers, limited time and resource available for formal courses. There found several strategic opportunities in imporvemnet digital skill of pre-service teacher, including innovating the teacher education curriculum by integrating digital pedagogy and technology-enhanced learning modules, leveraging available technologies such as learning management systems, augmented reality, virtual reality and AI-based tools for instructional practice, and forming partnerships with schools, edtech providers, and government agencies to provide hands-on digital training and sustainable support systems.
Keywords:
Advance digital skill Basic digital skill Digital skill gap Intermediate digital skillReferences
Abbas, H. A., Jaber, H. S., & Salman, A. D. (2024). Land Use Mapping from Sentinel Satellite Imagery Using Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1374(1), 012042. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1374/1/012042
Abdinejad, M., Talaie, B., Qorbani, H. S., & Dalili, S. (2021). Student Perceptions Using Augmented Reality and 3D Visualization Technologies in Chemistry Education. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 30(1), 87–96. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-020-09880-2
AL-Areeq, A. M., Sharif, H. O., Abba, S. I., Chowdhury, S., Al-Suwaiyan, M., Benaafi, M., Yassin, M. A., & Aljundi, I. H. (2023). Digital Elevation Model for Flood Hazards Analysis in Complex Terrain: Case Study from Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation, 119, 103330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2023.103330
Alhudithi, E. (2021). Review of Voyant Tools: See Through Your Text. Language Learning & Technology, 23(31), 43–50. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10125/73446
Ameliah, R., Negara, R. A., & Rahmawati, I. (2022). Status Literasi Digital di Indonesia 2022. Retrieved from https://databoks.katadata.co.id/en/publications/2023/02/01/status-literasi-digital-di-indonesia-2022
Araujo, M. A. L., Chacón-Castro, M., Goitia, J. M. G., & Arias-Flores, H. (2024). Wedo 2.0 and Lego Education for the Logical Development of Elementary School Children. In: Rocha, Á., Ferrás, C., Hochstetter Diez, J., Diéguez Rebolledo, M. (eds) Information Technology and Systems. ICITS 2024. Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems, 933. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-54256-5_37
Badenhorst, M., Barry, C. J., Swanepoel, C. J., Staden, C. T. V., Wissing, J., & Rohwer, J. M. (2019). Workflow for Data Analysis in Experimental and Computational Systems Biology: Using Python as ‘Glue.’ Processes, 7(7), 460. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr7070460
Balaban, I., Rienties, B., & Winne, P. H. (2023). Information Communication Technology (ICT) and Education. Applied Sciences, 13(22), 12318. https://doi.org/10.3390/app132212318
Balleisen, E. J., Howes, L., & Wibbels, E. (2024). The Impact of Applied Project-Based Learning on Undergraduate Student Development. Higher Education, 87(4), 1141–1156. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-023-01057-1
Banda, H. J., & Nzabahimana, J. (2023). The Impact of Physics Education Technology (PhET) Interactive Simulation-Based Learning on Motivation and Academic Achievement Among Malawian Physics Students. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 32(1), 127–141. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-022-10010-3
Bari, J. B. A., Tiwari, S. P., Mitra, B., Elhaj, A. I., Siddiqui, A., Reshi, O. R., & Rahman, S. M. (2023). GIS-Based Modelling for Estimation of Water Quality Parameters: A Review. In Geospatial Analytics for Environmental Pollution Modeling (pp. 57–89). Springer Nature Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-45300-7_3
BPS. (2023). Statistik Telekomunikasi Indonesia 2023. Retrieved from https://www.bps.go.id/id/publication/2024/08/30/f4b846f397ea452bdc2178b3/statistik-telekomunikasi-indonesia-2023.html
Brown, M., & Shackel, P. (2023). Text Mining Oral Histories in Historical Archaeology. International Journal of Historical Archaeology, 27(3), 865–881. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10761-022-00680-5
Cabero-Almenara, J., Gutiérrez-Castillo, J. J., Guillén-Gámez, F. D., & Gaete-Bravo, A. F. (2023). Digital Competence of Higher Education Students as a Predictor of Academic Success. Technology, Knowledge and Learning, 28(2), 683–702. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-022-09624-8
Chauhan, R. S., Tanwar, S., & Datta, P. (2024). Designing and Development of AR Based Application for Biological Education. 2024 International Conference on Communication, Computer Sciences and Engineering (IC3SE), 279–283. https://doi.org/10.1109/IC3SE62002.2024.10593274
Chen, Y.-M. (2022). Understanding Foreign Language Learners’ Perceptions of Teachers’ Practice with Educational Technology with Specific Reference to Kahoot! and Padlet: A Case from China. Education and Information Technologies, 27(2), 1439–1465. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10649-2
Dai, H., Peng, X., Shi, X., He, L., Xiong, Q., & Jin, H. (2022). Reveal Training Performance Mystery between TensorFlow and PyTorch in the Single GPU Environment. Science China Information Sciences, 65(1), 112103. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11432-020-3182-1
Damuri, Y. R., Aswicahyono, H., Setiati, I., Mugijayani, W., Wicaksono, T. Y., Fauri, A., Rafitrandi, D., Yazid, E. K., Barany, L. J., & Teguh, R. N. (2022). Digital Literacy and Skills Toolkit Implementation in Indonesia: Experience and Lessons Learned from Small Survey. Retrieved from https://www.csis.or.id/publication/digital-literacy-and-skills-toolkit-implementation-in-indonesia/
Degerli, B., & Çetin, M. (2022). Using the Remote Sensing Method to Simulate the Land Change in the Year 2030. Turkish Journal of Agriculture - Food Science and Technology, 10(12), 2453–2466. https://doi.org/10.24925/turjaf.v10i12.2453-2466.5555
Deshchenya, V. I., & Kondratyuk, N. D. (2023). History and Perspectives of Atomistic Simulation of Polysaccharides. Polymer Science, Series C, 65(1), 83–100. https://doi.org/10.1134/S1811238223700285
Dogan, S., Dogan, N. A., & Celik, I. (2021). Teachers’ Skills to Integrate Technology in Education: Two Path Models Explaining Instructional and Application Software Use. Education and Information Technologies, 26(1), 1311–1332. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-020-10310-4
Fedorov, D. G. (2021). Recent Development of the Fragment Molecular Orbital Method in GAMESS. In Recent Advances of the Fragment Molecular Orbital Method (pp. 31–51). Springer Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-9235-5_3
Gabdullin, M. T., Suinullayev, Y., Kabi, Y., Kang, J. W., & Mukasheva, A. (2024). Comparative Analysis of Hadoop and Spark Performance for Real-time Big Data Smart Platforms Utilizing IoT Technology in Electrical Facilities. Journal of Electrical Engineering & Technology, 19(7), 4595–4606. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42835-024-01937-1
Gayatri, G., Jaya, I. G. N. M., & Rumata, V. M. (2022). The Indonesian Digital Workforce Gaps in 2021–2025. Sustainability, 15(1), 754. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15010754
Ghanbaripour, A. N., Talebian, N., Miller, D., Tumpa, R. J., Zhang, W., Golmoradi, M., & Skitmore, M. (2024). A Systematic Review of the Impact of Emerging Technologies on Student Learning, Engagement, and Employability in Built Environment Education. Buildings, 14(9), 2769. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14092769
Global Education Monitoring Report. (2023). GEM Report 2023: Technology in Education: A Tool on Whose Terms?. UNESCO. Retrieved from https://www.right-to-education.org/resource/gem-report-2023-technology-education-tool-whose-terms
Guo, Y., Liu, C., Ye, R., & Duan, Q. (2020). Advances on Water Quality Detection by UV-Vis Spectroscopy. Applied Sciences, 10(19), 6874. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10196874
Han, H., & Liu, W. (2019). The Coming Era of Artificial Intelligence in Biological Data Science. BMC Bioinformatics, 20(S22), 712. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12859-019-3225-3
Helsper, E. J., Schneider, L. S., Deursen, A. J. A. M. V., & Laar, E. V. (2021). The Youth Digital Skills Indicator. http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4476540
Holm, P. (2024). Impact of Digital Literacy on Academic Achievement: Evidence from an Online Anatomy and Physiology Course. E-Learning and Digital Media. https://doi.org/10.1177/20427530241232489
Hongsuchon, T., Emary, I. M. M. E., Hariguna, T., & Qhal, E. M. A. (2022). Assessing the Impact of Online-Learning Effectiveness and Benefits in Knowledge Management, the Antecedent of Online-Learning Strategies and Motivations: An Empirical Study. Sustainability, 14(5), 2570. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14052570
Houshmand, F., & Houshmand, S. (2023). Potentially Highly Effective Drugs for COVID-19: Virtual Screening and Molecular Docking Study Through PyRx-Vina Approach. Frontiers in Health Informatics, 12, 150. https://doi.org/10.30699/fhi.v12i0.478
Kalaitzidou, M., & Pachidis, T. P. (2023). Recent Robots in STEAM Education. Education Sciences, 13(3), 272. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13030272
Kapustina, O., Burmakina, P., Gubina, N., Serov, N., & Vinogradov, V. (2024). User-Friendly and Industry-Integrated AI for Medicinal Chemists and Pharmaceuticals. Artificial Intelligence Chemistry, 2(2), 100072. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aichem.2024.100072
Kayyali, M. (2024). Career Development in Higher Education (pp. 1–19). https://doi.org/10.4018/979-8-3693-0517-1.ch001
Kim, S., Chen, J., Cheng, T., Gindulyte, A., He, J., He, S., Li, Q., Shoemaker, B. A., Thiessen, P. A., Yu, B., Zaslavsky, L., Zhang, J., & Bolton, E. E. (2023). PubChem 2023 Update. Nucleic Acids Research, 51(D1), D1373–D1380. https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkac956
Krebs, F., & Zoete, V. (2023). 12P Swiss-PO: Molecular Modelling for Precision Oncology. ESMO Open, 8(1), 101658. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esmoop.2023.101658
Kumar, S., Stecher, G., Li, M., Knyaz, C., & Tamura, K. (2018). MEGA X: Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis across Computing Platforms. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 35(6), 1547–1549. https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msy096
Li, L. (2022). Reskilling and Upskilling the Future-Ready Workforce for Industry 4.0 and Beyond. Information Systems Frontiers. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10796-022-10308-y
Liu, X., Zhang, J., Yin, J., Bi, S., Eisenbach, M., & Wang, Y. (2021). Monte Carlo Simulation of Order-Disorder Transition in Refractory High Entropy Alloys: A Data-Driven Approach. Computational Materials Science, 187, 110135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.commatsci.2020.110135
Ma, X., Rong, H., & Yan, Y. (2024). GPS-RTK Mapping Technology in Remote Sensing Dynamic Monitoring of Geological Disasters Under Artificial Intelligence Technology. 2024 Second International Conference on Data Science and Information System (ICDSIS), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICDSIS61070.2024.10594171
Mahmud, M. M., & Wong, S. F. (2022). Digital Age: The Importance of 21st Century Skills Among the Undergraduates. Frontiers in Education, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2022.950553
Marpaung, D. N., Pongkendek, J. J., Azzajjad, M. F., & Sukirno, S. (2021). Analysis of Student Motivation Using Chemsketch on Hydrocarbon Topic in SMA Negeri 2 Merauke. Journal of Applied Science, Engineering, Technology, and Education, 3(1), 69–73. https://doi.org/10.35877/454RI.asci105
Mohapatra, R. K., Perekhoda, L., Azam, M., Suleiman, M., Sarangi, A. K., Semenets, A., Pintilie, L., & Al-Resayes, S. I. (2021). Computational Investigations of Three Main Drugs and Their Comparison with Synthesized Compounds as Potent Inhibitors of SARS-CoV-2 Main Protease (Mpro): DFT, QSAR, Molecular Docking, and in Silico Toxicity Analysis. Journal of King Saud University - Science, 33(2), 101315. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2020.101315
Mualla, W., & Mualla, K. J. (2024). Digital Transformation in Higher Education: Challenges and Opportunities for Developing Countries. In Higher Education in the Arab World (pp. 211–231). Springer Nature Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-70779-7_9
Onu, P., Pradhan, A., & Mbohwa, C. (2024). Potential to Use Metaverse for Future Teaching and Learning. Education and Information Technologies, 29(7), 8893–8924. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-12167-9
Paris, T., Ciarletta, L., & Chevrier, V. (2018). Designing Co-simulation with Multi-agent Tools: A Case Study with NetLogo (pp. 253–267). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01713-2_18
Parsons, D., MacCallum, K., Schofield, L., Johnstone, A., & Coulter, S.-K. (2020). Next-Generation Digital Curricula for Future Teaching and Learning (pp. 3–19). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-0618-5_1
Pushpalatha, P., Ramadevi, R., Kishore, S. C., & Bellucci, S. (2023). Computational-Simulation-Based Behavioral Analysis of Chemical Compounds. Journal of Composites Science, 7(5), 196. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs7050196
Ramesh, J. V. N., Khandekar, S. D., Baburao, D., Singh, M., Biban, L., Muniyandy, E., & Desingurajan, N. (2024). Harnessing Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems to Address Soil Degradation and Water Scarcity in Climate Change Era. Remote Sensing in Earth Systems Sciences, 7(2), 139–147. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41976-024-00108-0
Rosignoli, S., & Paiardini, A. (2022). Boosting the Full Potential of PyMOL with Structural Biology Plugins. Biomolecules, 12(12), 1764. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom12121764
Rothwell, A., Way, A., & Youdale, R. (2023). Computer-Assisted Literary Translation. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003357391
Saif, S. M., Ansarullah, S. I., Othman, M. T. B., Alshmrany, S., Shafiq, M., & Hamam, H. (2022). Impact of ICT in Modernizing the Global Education Industry to Yield Better Academic Outreach. Sustainability, 14(11), 6884. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14116884
Santos, A. I. D., Chinkes, E., Carvalho, M. A. G., Solórzano, C. M. V., & Marroni, L. S. (2023). The Digital Competence of Academics in Higher Education: Is the Glass Half Empty or Half Full? International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 20(1), 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-022-00376-0
Sarkar, S. (2022). Video Based Analysis Using Tracker Software for Solving Problems in Mechanics. Resonance, 27(9), 1645–1660. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12045-022-1455-6
Sato, S. N., Moreno, E. C., Rubio-Zarapuz, A., Dalamitros, A. A., Yañez-Sepulveda, R., Tornero-Aguilera, J. F., & Clemente-Suárez, V. J. (2023). Navigating the New Normal: Adapting Online and Distance Learning in the Post-Pandemic Era. Education Sciences, 14(1), 19. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14010019
Schulz, W., Fraillon, J., Ainley, J., & Duckworth, D. (2022). Digital Competences: Computer and Information Literacy and Computational Thinking (pp. 1273–1297). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88178-8_43
Simelane-Mnisi, S. (2023). Effectiveness of LMS Digital Tools Used by the Academics to Foster Students’ Engagement. Education Sciences, 13(10), 980. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13100980
Slopecki, M., Charbonneau, M., Lavallière, J.-M., Côté, J. N., & Clément, J. (2023). Validation of Automatically Quantified Swim Stroke Mechanics Using an Inertial Measurement Unit in Paralympic Athletes. Bioengineering, 11(1), 15. https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering11010015
SMERU. (2022). Diagnostic Report: Digital Skills Landscape in Indonesia. SMERU Research Report No. 2 Diagnostic, 2, 1–74. Retrieved from www.smeru.or.id
Song, Y., Kalacska, M., Gašparović, M., Yao, J., & Najibi, N. (2023). Advances in Geocomputation and Geospatial Artificial Intelligence (GeoAI) for Mapping. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation, 120, 103300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2023.103300
Spring, R., & Johnson, M. (2022). The Possibility of Improving Automated Calculation of Measures of Lexical Richness for EFL Writing: A Comparison of the LCA, NLTK and SpaCy tools. System, 106, 102770. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2022.102770
Theben, A., Plamenova, N., & Freire, A. (2023). The “New Currency of the Future”: A Review of Literature on the Skills Needs of the Workforce in Times of Accelerated Digitalisation. Management Review Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11301-023-00387-9
Themes, K. E. Y. T. O. (2013). Literacy Across the Curriculum. https://doi.org/10.18848/978-1-61229-143-7/cgp
Thielemann, H. C., Cardellini, A., Fasano, M., Bergamasco, L., Alberghini, M., Ciorra, G., Chiavazzo, E., & Asinari, P. (2019). From GROMACS to LAMMPS: GRO2LAM. Journal of Molecular Modeling, 25(6), 147. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00894-019-4011-x
Tinmaz, H., Lee, Y.-T., Fanea-Ivanovici, M., & Baber, H. (2022). A Systematic Review on Digital Literacy. Smart Learning Environments, 9(1), 21. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-022-00204-y
Tulinayo, F. P., Ssentume, P., & Najjuma, R. (2018). Digital technologies in Resource Constrained Higher Institutions of Learning: A Study on Students’ Acceptance and Usability. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 15(1), 36. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-018-0117-y
Tzafilkou, K., Perifanou, M., & Economides, A. A. (2022). Development and Validation of Students’ Digital Competence Scale (SDiCoS). International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 19(1), 30. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-022-00330-0
UNESCO. (2011). Dıgıtal Lıteracy: Content, Structure and Development of a Life Skill. UNESCO Institute for Information Technologies in Education, ISSN 2221-8378, 0–12. Retrieved from https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000214485_eng
Vaart, G. V. D., Hoven, B. V., & Humphris, I. (2024). Deep Mapping in Geography Education : Learning About a Distant Place and People in a Summer School as a ‘Committed Outlier.’ Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 00(00), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/03098265.2024.2403082
Vasile, R. (2023). Digital Divide and Employment: From Job Disruption to Reskilling Workers for the Future World of Work. International Conference on Economic Scientific Research - Theoretical, Empirical and Practical Approaches, 299–321. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-30996-0_22
Vieira, R. M., Tenreiro-Vieira, C. C., Bem-Haja, P., & Lucas, M. (2023). STEM Teachers’ Digital Competence: Different Subjects, Different Proficiencies. Education Sciences, 13(11), 1133. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13111133
Vishnu, S., Tengli, M. B., Ramadas, S., Sathyan, A. R., & Bhatt, A. (2024). Bridging the Divide: Assessing Digital Infrastructure for Higher Education Online Learning. TechTrends. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-024-00997-4
Wang, Z., Lu, K., Liu, X., Zhu, Y., & Liu, C. (2023). Comparative Functional Genome Analysis Reveals the Habitat Adaptation and Biocontrol Characteristics of Plant Growth-Promoting Bacteria in NCBI Databases. Microbiology Spectrum, 11(3). https://doi.org/10.1128/spectrum.05007-22
Weech, M., Fallaize, R., Kelly, E., Hwang, F., Franco, R. Z., & Lovegrove, J. A. (2023). Nutrition and Weight Loss Apps. In Smartphone Apps for Health and Wellness (pp. 93–115). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-99271-8.00006-1
Wiącek, M., Rybak, P., Pszenny, Ł., & Wróblewska, A. (2024). NLPre: A Revised Approach Towards Language-Centric Benchmarking of Natural Language Preprocessing Systems. Computation and Language. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2403.04507
Youssef, A. B., Dahmani, M., & Ragni, L. (2022). ICT Use, Digital Skills and Students’ Academic Performance: Exploring the Digital Divide. Information, 13(3), 129. https://doi.org/10.3390/info13030129
Zervas, I., & Stiakakis, E. (2024). Digital Skills in Vocational Education and Training: Investigating the Impact of Erasmus, Digital Tools, and Educational Platforms. Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development, 8(8), 8415. https://doi.org/10.24294/jipd.v8i8.8415
Zhang, J., Yahaya, W. A. J. W., & Sanmugam, M. (2024). The Impact of Immersive Technologies on Cultural Heritage: A Bibliometric Study of VR, AR, and MR Applications. Sustainability, 16(15), 6446. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16156446
Zhao, Z., Zhou, Y., Liu, B., He, J., Zhao, J., Cai, Y., Fan, J., Li, X., Wang, Z., Lu, Z., Wu, J., Qi, H., & Dai, Q. (2023). Two-Photon Synthetic Aperture Microscopy for Minimally Invasive Fast 3D Imaging of Native Subcellular Behaviors in Deep Tissue. Cell, 186(11), 2475-2491.e22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2023.04.016
Ziatdinov, R., & Valles, J. R. (2022). Synthesis of Modeling, Visualization, and Programming in GeoGebra as an Effective Approach for Teaching and Learning STEM Topics. Mathematics, 10(3), 398. https://doi.org/10.3390/math10030398
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Dona Mustika, Hasby

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with Jurnal Penelitian Pendidikan IPA, agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC-BY License). This license allows authors to use all articles, data sets, graphics, and appendices in data mining applications, search engines, web sites, blogs, and other platforms by providing an appropriate reference. The journal allows the author(s) to hold the copyright without restrictions and will retain publishing rights without restrictions.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgment of its initial publication in Jurnal Penelitian Pendidikan IPA.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).






