From Biomass Waste to Functional Iron Oxides: Mechanistic Understanding, Structure Engineering, and Environmental Applications
DOI:
10.29303/jppipa.v12i6.14780Published:
2026-06-25Downloads
Abstract
Biomass-mediated green synthesis of iron oxide nanomaterials has gained increasing attention as a sustainable alternative to conventional chemical methods, offering lower energy requirements, reduced chemical toxicity, and intrinsic surface functionalization. Unlike previous reviews that mainly summarize synthesis routes or environmental applications separately, this review establishes an integrated structure–property–performance framework to systematically correlate biomass chemistry, phase evolution, and functional remediation behavior of iron oxide nanomaterials. A structured scoping review was conducted by analyzing 42 peer-reviewed articles published between 2010 and 2024, selected from major scientific databases using predefined inclusion criteria emphasizing crystalline phase identification, quantitative structural characterization, and measurable environmental performance. Comparative synthesis of the collected data reveals that phytochemical constituents, particularly polyphenols and organic acids, regulate Fe³⁺ reduction, chelation equilibria, nucleation kinetics, and phase selectivity among Fe₃O₄, γ-Fe₂O₃, and α-Fe₂O₃. Fe₃O₄-rich systems exhibited smaller particle sizes (10–30 nm), higher saturation magnetization (30–70 emu g⁻¹), and superior pollutant removal efficiencies (90–99%), while γ-Fe₂O₃ showed moderate magnetic properties (20–50 emu g⁻¹) and α-Fe₂O₃ displayed larger particle sizes (30–60 nm), lower magnetization (<2 emu g⁻¹), but greater thermodynamic stability. Adsorption capacities ranged from 30–250 mg g⁻¹ depending on pollutant type and phase composition. Despite these promising performances, variability in biomass composition, phase instability, and inconsistent testing protocols remain major barriers to reproducibility and scalability. This review provides a quantitative and mechanistic framework to guide rational synthesis design, improve reproducibility, and accelerate scalable deployment of biomass-derived iron oxide nanomaterials for environmental remediation.
Keywords:
Biomass-mediated synthesis Fenton catalysis Heavy metal removal Iron oxide nanoparticles Phytochemical reductionReferences
Abdul-Gafaru, I., Cobbina, S. J., & Michael, K. (2025). Green-synthesized magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles for the adsorptive removal of CD2+ and PB2+ from aqueous solution. Discover Water, 5(1), 92. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43832-025-00285-z DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s43832-025-00285-z
Abdullah, J. A. A., Lagos, S. N. P., Sanchez, E. J. E., Rivera-Flores, O., Sánchez-Barahona, M., Guerrero, A., & Romero, A. (2024). Innovative Agrowaste Banana Peel Extract-Based Magnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles for Eco-Friendly Oxidative Shield and Freshness Fortification. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 17(12), 5083–5096. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-024-03423-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-024-03423-y
Acharya, R., & Parida, K. (2020). A review on adsorptive remediation of Cr (VI) by magnetic iron oxides and their modified forms. Biointerface Research in Applied Chemistry, 10(2), 5266–5272. https://doi.org/10.33263/BRIAC102.266272 DOI: https://doi.org/10.33263/BRIAC102.266272
Ahmad, T., Phul, R., & Khan, H. (2019). Iron Oxide Nanoparticles: An Efficient Nano-catalyst. Current Organic Chemistry, 23(9), 994–1004. https://doi.org/10.2174/1385272823666190314153208 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2174/1385272823666190314153208
Alex Mbachu, C., Kamoru Babayemi, A., Chinedu Egbosiuba, T., Ifeanyichukwu Ike, J., Jacinta Ani, I., & Mustapha, S. (2023). Green synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles by Taguchi design of experiment method for effective adsorption of methylene blue and methyl orange from textile wastewater. Results in Engineering, 19, 101198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2023.101198 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2023.101198
Bazrafshan, E., Mohammadi, L., Zarei, A. A., Mosafer, J., Zafar, M. N., & Dargahi, A. (2023). Optimization of the photocatalytic degradation of phenol using superparamagnetic iron oxide (Fe 3 O 4 ) nanoparticles in aqueous solutions. RSC Advances, 13(36), 25408–25424. https://doi.org/10.1039/D3RA03612J DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/D3RA03612J
Bishnoi, S., Kumar, A., & Selvaraj, R. (2018). Facile synthesis of magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles using inedible Cynometra ramiflora fruit extract waste and their photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue dye. Materials Research Bulletin, 97, 121–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.materresbull.2017.08.040 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.materresbull.2017.08.040
Castillo, J., Vargas, V., Macero, D., Le Beulze, A., Ruiz, W., & Bouyssiere, B. (2021). One-step synthesis of SiO2 α−Fe2O3 / Fe3O4 composite nanoparticles with magnetic properties from rice husks. Physica B: Condensed Matter, 605, 412799. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physb.2020.412799 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physb.2020.412799
Chakraborty, A. R., Zohora Toma, F. T., Alam, K., Yousuf, S. B., & Hossain, K. S. (2024). RETRACTED: Influence of annealing temperature on Fe₂O₃ nanoparticles: Synthesis optimization and structural, optical, morphological, and magnetic properties characterization for advanced technological applications. Heliyon, 10(21), e40000. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e40000 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e40000
Damasceno, B. S., da Silva, V. C., Rodrigues, A. R., Falcão, E. H. L., & Vaz de Araújo, A. C. (2024). Use of magnetic nanoparticles of iron oxide and their derivatives in the adsorption of rhodamine 6G and rhodamine B dyes. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 1005, 175907. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2024.175907 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2024.175907
de Oliveira, M. L., Cancino-Bernardi, J., & da Veiga, M. A. M. S. (2025). Understanding and predicting the environmental dispersion of iron oxide nanoparticles: a comprehensive study on synthesis, characterisation, and modelling. Environmental Science: Nano, 12(1), 791–804. https://doi.org/10.1039/D3EN00860F DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/D3EN00860F
Demirezen, D. A., Yılmaz, Ş., Yılmaz, D. D., & Yıldız, Y. Ş. (2022). Green synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles using Ceratonia siliqua L. aqueous extract: improvement of colloidal stability by optimizing synthesis parameters, and evaluation of antibacterial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. International Journal of Materials Research, 113(10), 849–861. https://doi.org/10.1515/ijmr-2022-0037 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/ijmr-2022-0037
Devi, S. M., Nivetha, A., & Prabha, I. (2019). Superparamagnetic Properties and Significant Applications of Iron Oxide Nanoparticles for Astonishing Efficacy—a Review. Journal of Superconductivity and Novel Magnetism, 32(2), 127–144. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10948-018-4929-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10948-018-4929-8
Diephuis, W. R., Molloy, A. L., Boltz, L. L., Porter, T. B., Aragon Orozco, A., Duron, R., Crespo, D., George, L. J., Reiffer, A. D., Escalera, G., Bohloul, A., Avendano, C., Colvin, V. L., & Gonzalez-Pech, N. I. (2022). The Effect of Agglomeration on Arsenic Adsorption Using Iron Oxide Nanoparticles. Nanomaterials, 12(9), 1598. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12091598 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12091598
Dong, H., Du, W., Dong, J., Che, R., Kong, F., Cheng, W., Ma, M., Gu, N., & Zhang, Y. (2022). Depletable peroxidase-like activity of Fe3O4 nanozymes accompanied with separate migration of electrons and iron ions. Nature Communications, 13(1), 5365. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-33098-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-33098-y
Girardet, T., Venturini, P., Martinez, H., Dupin, J.-C., Cleymand, F., & Fleutot, S. (2022). Spinel Magnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles: Properties, Synthesis and Washing Methods. Applied Sciences, 12(16), 8127. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12168127 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/app12168127
Hoffmann, N., Tortella, G., Hermosilla, E., Fincheira, P., Diez, M. C., Lourenço, I. M., Seabra, A. B., & Rubilar, O. (2022). Comparative Toxicity Assessment of Eco-Friendly Synthesized Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles (SPIONs) in Plants and Aquatic Model Organisms. Minerals, 12(4), 451. https://doi.org/10.3390/min12040451 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/min12040451
Hu, Y., Han, X., Zhang, N., Guo, L., & Zhang, L. (2025). Insight into the performance and mechanism of Iron(II, III)-polyphenol particles on the adsorption of malachite green cationic dye. Scientific Reports, 15(1), 39056. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-26499-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-26499-8
Khan, M. A., Ahmed, M., Abu-Hussien, S. H., Zahid, M. U., & Alharbi, B. F. (2025). Green synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles (Fe2O3-NPs) from Citrus Limetta agrowaste for biological and photocatalytic applications. Scientific Reports, 15(1), 33107. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-17750-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-17750-3
Kumar, V., Kaushik, N. K., Tiwari, S. K., Singh, D., & Singh, B. (2023). Green synthesis of iron nanoparticles: Sources and multifarious biotechnological applications. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 253, 127017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.127017 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.127017
Li, Z., Goût, T. L., Zhang, J., Zhao, J., Liu, J., & Hu, Y. (2025). Review on stability of iron (oxyhydr)oxide nanoparticles in natural environments: interactions with metals, organics, and microbes. Environmental and Biogeochemical Processes, 1(1), 0–0. https://doi.org/10.48130/ebp-0025-0013 DOI: https://doi.org/10.48130/ebp-0025-0013
Magomedova, A., Isaev, A., Orudzhev, F., Sobola, D., Murtazali, R., Rabadanova, A., Shabanov, N. S., Zhu, M., Emirov, R., Gadzhimagomedov, S., Alikhanov, N., & Kasinathan, K. (2023). Magnetically Separable Mixed-Phase α/γ-Fe2O3 Catalyst for Photo-Fenton-like Oxidation of Rhodamine B. Catalysts, 13(5), 872. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal13050872 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/catal13050872
Makarov, V. V., Makarova, S. S., Love, A. J., Sinitsyna, O. V., Dudnik, A. O., Yaminsky, I. V., Taliansky, M. E., & Kalinina, N. O. (2014). Biosynthesis of Stable Iron Oxide Nanoparticles in Aqueous Extracts of Hordeum vulgare and Rumex acetosa Plants. Langmuir, 30(20), 5982–5988. https://doi.org/10.1021/la5011924 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/la5011924
Malacaria, L., Corrente, G. A., Beneduci, A., Furia, E., Marino, T., & Mazzone, G. (2021). A Review on Coordination Properties of Al(III) and Fe(III) toward Natural Antioxidant Molecules: Experimental and Theoretical Insights. Molecules, 26(9), 2603. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26092603 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26092603
Mohamed, A., Atta, R. R., Kotp, A. A., Abo El-Ela, F. I., Abd El-Raheem, H., Farghali, A., Alkhalifah, D. H. M., Hozzein, W. N., & Mahmoud, R. (2023). Green synthesis and characterization of iron oxide nanoparticles for the removal of heavy metals (Cd2+ and Ni2+) from aqueous solutions with Antimicrobial Investigation. Scientific Reports, 13(1), 7227. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-31704-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-31704-7
Nehe, A. D., & Kulkarni, A. D. (2025). Fundamentals of Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles: Recent Update. Journal of Microscopy and Ultrastructure, 13(3), 113–129. https://doi.org/10.4103/jmau.jmau_17_22 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4103/jmau.jmau_17_22
Parveen, S., Riyazur Rahman, F., Thulasi Krishnan, S., Kalaiarasi, G., Dinesh, A., Srimathi Priya, L., Gnanasekaran, L., Santhamoorthy, M., Ayyar, M., & Santhoshkumar, S. (2025). Green Synthesis of Metal Oxide Nanoparticles via Plant Extracts for Biological Applications: A Review. Trends in Sciences, 22(6), 9592. https://doi.org/10.48048/tis.2025.9592 DOI: https://doi.org/10.48048/tis.2025.9592
Periakaruppan, R., Chen, X., Thangaraj, K., Jeyaraj, A., Nguyen, H. H., Yu, Y., Hu, S., Lu, L., & Li, X. (2021). Utilization of tea resources with the production of superparamagnetic biogenic iron oxide nanoparticles and an assessment of their antioxidant activities. Journal of Cleaner Production, 278, 123962. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123962 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123962
Ramos-Guivar, J. A., Flores-Cano, D. A., & Caetano Passamani, E. (2021). Differentiating Nanomaghemite and Nanomagnetite and Discussing Their Importance in Arsenic and Lead Removal from Contaminated Effluents: A Critical Review. Nanomaterials, 11(9), 2310. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11092310 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11092310
Revathy, R., Sajini, T., Augustine, C., & Joseph, N. (2023). Iron-based magnetic nanomaterials: Sustainable approaches of synthesis and applications. Results in Engineering, 18, 101114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2023.101114 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2023.101114
Saidani, M. A., Fkiri, A., Chouk, W., Altalhi, T., & Mezni, A. (2025). Synthesis, Characterization and Photocatalytic Evaluation of Multifunctional Ternary Au@ZnO/α-Fe₂O₃ Nanocomposite for Organic Pollutant Removal. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 236(10), 644. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-025-08301-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-025-08301-7
Shabatina, T. I., Vernaya, O. I., Shabatin, V. P., & Melnikov, M. Y. (2020). Magnetic Nanoparticles for Biomedical Purposes: Modern Trends and Prospects. Magnetochemistry, 6(3), 30. https://doi.org/10.3390/magnetochemistry6030030 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/magnetochemistry6030030
Sharifi, S., Mahmoud, N. N., Voke, E., Landry, M. P., & Mahmoudi, M. (2022). Importance of Standardizing Analytical Characterization Methodology for Improved Reliability of the Nanomedicine Literature. Nano-Micro Letters, 14(1), 172. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-022-00922-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-022-00922-5
Tiwari, S., Bhargawa, P. K., & Kumar, R. (2026). Biomass-mediated nanomaterials for petroleum refinery waste remediation: a comprehensive review of mechanisms and applications. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 198(1), 77. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-025-14803-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-025-14803-y
Tricco, A. C., Lillie, E., Zarin, W., O’Brien, K. K., Colquhoun, H., Levac, D., Moher, D., Peters, M. D. J., Horsley, T., Weeks, L., Hempel, S., Akl, E. A., Chang, C., McGowan, J., Stewart, L., Hartling, L., Aldcroft, A., Wilson, M. G., Garritty, C., … Straus, S. E. (2018). PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR): Checklist and Explanation. Annals of Internal Medicine, 169(7), 467–473. https://doi.org/10.7326/M18-0850 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7326/M18-0850
Tyagi, N., Gupta, P., Khan, Z., Neupane, Y. R., Mangla, B., Mehra, N., Ralli, T., Alhalmi, A., Ali, A., Al Kamaly, O., Saleh, A., Nasr, F. A., & Kohli, K. (2023). Superparamagnetic Iron-Oxide Nanoparticles Synthesized via Green Chemistry for the Potential Treatment of Breast Cancer. Molecules, 28(5), 2343. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28052343 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28052343
Vindedahl, A. M., Strehlau, J. H., Arnold, W. A., & Penn, R. L. (2016). Organic matter and iron oxide nanoparticles: aggregation, interactions, and reactivity. Environmental Science: Nano, 3(3), 494–505. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5EN00215J DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/C5EN00215J
Wang, P., Zhou, X., Zhang, Y., Yang, L., Zhi, K., Wang, L., Zhang, L., & Guo, X. (2017). Unveiling the mechanism of electron transfer facilitated regeneration of active Fe 2+ by nano-dispersed iron/graphene catalyst for phenol removal. RSC Advances, 7(43), 26983–26991. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7RA04312K DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/C7RA04312K
Wang, W., Liu, Y., Yue, Y., Wang, H., Cheng, G., Gao, C., Chen, C., Ai, Y., Chen, Z., & Wang, X. (2021). The Confined Interlayer Growth of Ultrathin Two-Dimensional Fe 3 O 4 Nanosheets with Enriched Oxygen Vacancies for Peroxymonosulfate Activation. ACS Catalysis, 11(17), 11256–11265. https://doi.org/10.1021/acscatal.1c03331 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acscatal.1c03331
Wroblewski, C., Ravikumar, S. P., Barbhuiya, R. I., Raveendran Nair, G., Elsayed, A., & Singh, A. (2025). A novel magnetically separable pH sensitive surface‐active iron oxide nanoparticles for the removal of antibiotics (tetracycline) from aquatic environments. The Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering, 103(11), 5373–5385. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjce.25722 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/cjce.25722
Xiang, T., Cai, X., Luo, Z., Zhou, X., Yan, C., Yu, J., Ge, J., & Li, Y. (2025). Defect engineering to boost charge transfer of Mn-doped γ-Fe₂O₃ hollow porous microspheres via OVFe Mn charge channel for efficient photo-Fenton degradation of organics. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 1019, 179269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2025.179269 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2025.179269
Xu, W., Yang, T., Liu, S., Du, L., Chen, Q., Li, X., Dong, J., Zhang, Z., Lu, S., Gong, Y., Zhou, L., Liu, Y., & Tan, X. (2022). Insights into the Synthesis, types and application of iron Nanoparticles: The overlooked significance of environmental effects. Environment International, 158, 106980. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2021.106980 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2021.106980
Yousif, N., Al-Jawad, S., Taha, A., & Stamatis, H. (2023). A review of Structure, Properties, and Chemical Synthesis of Magnetite Nanoparticles. Journal of Applied Sciences and Nanotechnology, 3(2), 18–31. https://doi.org/10.53293/jasn.2022.5179.1178 DOI: https://doi.org/10.53293/jasn.2022.5179.1178
Zhang, C., Yu, Z., Zeng, G., Huang, B., Dong, H., Huang, J., Yang, Z., Wei, J., Hu, L., & Zhang, Q. (2016). Phase transformation of crystalline iron oxides and their adsorption abilities for Pb and Cd. Chemical Engineering Journal, 284, 247–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2015.08.096 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2015.08.096
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Dewi Kurnianingsih Arum Kusumahastuti, November R. Aminu, Agung R. Gintu, Emmanuel Hernanda Yustisia Susanto, Gecia Ovi Wulandari
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with Jurnal Penelitian Pendidikan IPA, agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC-BY License). This license allows authors to use all articles, data sets, graphics, and appendices in data mining applications, search engines, web sites, blogs, and other platforms by providing an appropriate reference. The journal allows the author(s) to hold the copyright without restrictions and will retain publishing rights without restrictions.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgment of its initial publication in Jurnal Penelitian Pendidikan IPA.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
